2300 words

Introduction

(1) Crime is bad. (2) Racism causes crime. (C) Thus, racism is morally wrong. (1) is self-evident based on people not wanting to be harmed. (2) is known upon empirical examination, like the TAAO and it’s successful novel predictions. (C) then logically follows. In this article, I will give the argument in formal notation and show its validity while defending the premises and then show how the conclusion follows from the premises. I will then discuss two possible counter arguments and then show how they would fail. I will show that you can derive normative conclusions from ethical and factual statements (which then bypasses the naturalistic fallacy), and then I will give the general argument I am giving here. I will discuss other reasons why racism is bad (since it leads to negative physiological and mental health outcomes), and then conclude that the argument is valid and sound and I will discuss how stereotypes and self-fulfilling prophecies also contribute to black crime.

Defending the argument

This argument is obviously valid and I will show how.

B stands for “crime is bad”, C stands for “racism causes crime”, D stands for racism is objectively incorrect, so from B and C we derive D (if C causes B and B is bad, then D is morally wrong). So the argument is “(B ^ C) -> D”. B and C lead to D, proving validity.

Saying “crime is bad” is an ethical judgement. The term “bad” is used as a moral or ethical judgment. “Bad” implies a negative ethical assessment which suggests that engaging in criminal actions is morally undesirable or ethically wrong. The premise asserts a moral viewpoint, claiming that actions that cause harm—including crime—are inherently bad. It implies a normative stance which implies that criminal behavior is wrong or morally undesirable. So it aligns with the idea that causing harm, violating laws or infringing upon others is morally undesirable.

When it comes to the premise “racism causes crime”, this needs to be centered on the theory of African American offending (TAAO). It’s been established that blacks experiencing racism is causal for crime. So the premise implies that racism is a factor in or contributes to criminal behavior amongst blacks who experience racism. Discriminatory practices based on race (racism) could lead to social inequalities, marginalization and frustration which would then contribute to criminal behavior among the affected person. This could also highlight systemic issues where racist policies or structures create an environment conducive to crime. And on the individual level, experiences of racism could influence certain individuals to engage in criminal activity as a response or coping mechanism (Unnever, 2014; Unnever, Cullen, and Barnes, 2016). Perceived racial discrimination “indirectly predicted arrest, and directly predicted both illegal behavior and jail” (Gibbons et al, 2021). Racists propose that what causes the gap is a slew of psychological traits, genetic factors, and physiological variables, but even in the 1960s, criminologists and geneticists rejected the genetic hypothesis of crime (Wolfgang,1964). However we do know there is a protective effect when parents prepare their children for bias (Burt, Simons, and Gibbons, 2013). Even the role of institutions exacerbates the issue (Hetey and Eberhardt, 2014). And in my article on the Unnever-Gabbidon theory of African American offending, I wrote about one of the predictions that follows from the theory which was borne out when it was tested.

So it’s quite obvious that the premise “racism causes crime” has empirical support.

So if B and C are true then D follows. The logical connection between B and C leads to the conclusion that “racism is morally wrong”, expressed by (B ^ C) -> D. Now I can express this argument using modus ponens.

(1) If (B ^ C) then D. (Expressed as (B ^ C) -> D).

(2) (B ^ C) is true.

(3) Thus, D is true.

When it comes to the argument as a whole it can be generalized to harm is bad and racism causes harm so racism is bad.

Furthermore, I can generalize the argument further and state that not only that crime is bad, but that racism leads to psychological harm and harm is bad, so racism is morally wrong. We know that racism can lead to “weathering” (Geronimus et al, 2006, 2011; Simons, 2021) and increased allostatic load (Barr 2014: 71-72). So racism leads to a slew of unwanted physiological issues (of which microaggressions are a species of; Williams, 2021).

Racism leads to negative physiological and mental health outcomes (P), and negative physiological and mental health outcomes are undesirable (Q), so racism is morally objectionable (R). So the factual statement (P) establishes a link between negative health outcomes, providing evidence that racism leads to these negative health outcomes. The ethical statement (Q) asserts that negative health outcomes are morally undesirable which aligns with a common ethical principle that causing harm is morally objectionable. Then the logical connection (Q ^ P) combines the factual observation of harm caused by racism with the ethical judgment that harm is morally undesirable. Then the normative conclusion (R) follows, which asserts that racial is morally objectionable since it leads to negative health outcomes. So this argument is (Q ^ P) -> R.

Racism can lead to stereotyping of certain groups as more prone to criminal behavior, and this stereotype can be internalized and perpetuated which would then contribute to biased law enforcement and along with it unjust profiling. It can also lead to systemic inequalities like in education, employment and housing which are then linked to higher crime rates (in this instance, racism and stereotyping causes the black-white crime gap, as predicted by Unnever and Gabbidon, 2011 and then verified by numerous authors). Further, as I’ve shown, racism can negatively affect mental health leading to stress, anxiety and trauma and people facing these challenges would be more vulnerable to engage in criminal acts.

Stereotypes and self-fulfilling prophecies

In his book Concepts and Theories of Human Development, Lerner (2018: 298) discusses how stereotyping and self-fulfilling prophecies would arise from said stereotyping. He says that people, based on their skin color, are placed into an unfavorable category. Then negative behaviors were attributed to the group. Then these behaviors were associated with different experience in comparison to other skin color groups. These different behaviors then delimit the range of possible behaviors that could develop. So the group was forced into a limited number of possible behaviors, the same behaviors they were stereotyped to have. So the group finally develops the behavior due to being “channeled” (to use Lerner’s word) which is then “the end result of the physically cued social stereotype was a self-fulfilling prophecy” (Lerner, 2018: 298).

From the analysis of the example I provided and, as well, from empirical literature in support of it (e.g., Spencer, 2006; Spencer et al., 2015), a strong argument can be made that the people of color in the United States have perhaps experienced the most unfortunate effects of this most indirect type of hereditary contribution to behavior–social stereotypes. Thus, it may be that African Americans for many years have been involved in an educational and intellectual self-fulfilling prophecy in the United States. (Lerner, 2018: 299)

This is an argument about how social stereotypes can spur behavioral development, and it has empirical support. Lerner’s claim that perception influences behavior is backed by Spencer, Swanson and Harpalani’s (2015) article on the development of the self and Spencer, Dupree, and Hartman’s (1997) phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST). (Also see Cunningham et al, 2023). Spencer, Swanson and Harpalani (2015: 764) write:

Whether it is with images of the super-athlete, criminal, gangster, or hypersexed male, it seems that most of society’s views of African Americans are defined by these stereotypes. The Black male has, in one way or another, captured the imagination of the media to such a wide extent that media representations create his image far more than reality does. Most of the images of the Black male denote physical prowess or aggression and downplay other characteristics. For example, stereotypes of Black athletic prowess can be used to promote the notion that Blacks are unintelligent (Harpalani, 2005). These societal stereotypes, in conjunction with numerous social, political, and economic forces, interact to place African American males at extreme risk for adverse outcomes and behaviors.

A -> B—So stereotypes can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies (if there are stereotypes, then they can result in self-fulfilling prophecies). B -> C—Self-fulfilling prophecies can increase the chance of crime for blacks (if there are self-fulfilling prophecies, then they can increase the chance of crime for blacks. So A -> C—Stereotypes can increase the chance of crime for blacks (if there are stereotypes, then they can increase the chance of crime for blacks). Going back to the empirical studies on the TAAO, we know that racism and stereotypes cause the black-white crime gap (Unnever, 2014; Unnever, Cullen, and Barnes, 2016; Herda, 2016, 2018; Scott and Seal, 2019), and so the argument by Spencer et al and Lerner is yet more evidence that racism and stereotypes lead to self-fulfilling prophecies which then cause black crime. Behavior can quite clearly be shaped by stereotypes and self-fulfilling prophecies.

Responses to possible counters

I think there are 3 ways that one could try to refute the argument—(1) Argue that B is false, (2) argue that C is false, or (3) argue that the argument commits the is-ought fallacy.

(1) Counter premise: B’: “Not all crimes are morally bad, some may be morally justifiable or necessary in certain contexts. So if not all crimes are morally bad, then the conclusion that racism is morally wrong based on the premises (B ^ C) isn’t universally valid.”

Premise B reflects a broad ethical judgment which is based on social norms that generally view actions that cause harm morally undesirable. My argument is based on consequences—that racism causes crime. The legal systems of numerous societies categorize certain actions as crimes since they are deemed morally reprehensible and harmful to individuals and communities. Thus, there is a broad moral stance against actions that cause harm which is reflected in the societal normative stance against actions which cause harm.

(2) Counter premise: C’: “Racism does not necessarily cause crime. Since racism does not necessarily cause crime, then the conclusion that racism is objectively wrong isn’t valid.”

Premise C states that racism causes crime. When I say that, it doesn’t mean that every instance of racism leads to an instance of crime. Numerous social factors contribute to criminal actions, but there is a relationship between racial discrimination (racism) and crime:

Experiencing racial discrimination increases the likelihood of black Americans engaging in criminal actions. How does this follow from the theory? TAAO posits that racial discrimination can lead to feelings of frustration and marginalization, and to cope with these stressors, some individuals may resort to commuting criminal acts as a way to exert power or control in response to their experiences of racial discrimination. (Unnever, 2014; Unnever, Cullen, and Barnes, 2016; Herda, 2016, 2018; Scott and Seal, 2019)

(3) “The argument commits the naturalistic fallacy by inferring an “ought” from an “is.” It appears to derive a normative conclusion from factual and ethical statements. So the transition from descriptive premises to moral judgments lacks a clear ethical justification which violates the naturalistic fallacy.” So this possible counter contends that normative statement B and the ethical statement C isn’t enough to justify the normative conclusion D. Therefore it questions whether the argument has good justification for an ethical transition to the conclusion D.”

I can simply show this. Observe X causing Y (C). Y is morally undesirable (B). Y is morally undesirable and X causes Y (B ^ C). So X is morally objectionable (D). So C begins with an empirical finding. B then is the ethical premise. The logical connection is then established with B ^ C (which can be reduced to “Harm is morally objectionable and racism causes harm”). This then allows me to infer the normative conclusion—D—allowing me to bypass the charge of committing the naturalistic fallacy. Thus, the ethical principle that harm is morally undesirable and that racism causes harm allows me to derive the conclusion that racism is objectively wrong. So factual statements can be combined with ethical statements to derive ethical conclusions, bypassing the naturalistic fallacy.

Conclusion

This discussion centered on my argument (B ^ C) -> D. The argument was:

(P1) Crime is bad (whatever causes harm is bad). (B)

(P2) Racism causes crime. (C)

(C) Racism is morally wrong. (D)

I defended the truth of both premises, and then I answered two possible objections, both rejecting B and C. I then defended my argument against the charge of it committing the naturalistic fallacy by stating that ethical statements can be combined with factual statements to derive normative conclusions. Addressing possible counters (C’ and B’), I argued that there is evidence that racism leads to crime (and other negative health outcomes, generalized as “harm”) in black Americans, and that harm is generally seen as bad, so it then follows that C’ and B’ fail. Spencer’s and Lerner’s arguments, furthermore, show how stereotypes can spur behavioral development, meaning that social stereotypes increase the chance of adverse behavior—meaning crime. It is quite obvious that the TAAO has strong empirical support, and so since crime is bad and racism causes crime then racism is morally wrong. So to decrease the rate of black crime we—as a society—need to change our negative attitudes toward certain groups of people.

Thus, my argument builds a logical connection between harm being bad, racism causing harm and moral undesirability. In addressing potential objections and clarifying the ethical framework I ren, So the general argument is: Harm is bad, racism causes harm, so racism is morally wrong.